Democracy in India

[]( Constructed in 1927 as the seat of the [Imperial Legislative Council of India]( "Imperial Legislative Council of India"), the [Old Parliament House]( "Old Parliament House, New Delhi") served as the home of the [Indian Parliament]( "Parliament of India") from 1947 until 2023, when the [New Parliament House]( "Parliament House, New Delhi") was opened. [India]( "India") is considered to be the world's most populous democracy. [Elections in the country]( "Elections in India") started with the [1951–52 Indian general election]( "1951–52 Indian general election"). India was among the first post-colonial nations to adopt [universal adult suffrage]( "Universal suffrage"), granting all adult citizens equal voting rights. In recent years, under the [premiership]( "Premiership of Narendra Modi") of [Narendra Modi]( "Narendra Modi"), India has experienced significant [democratic backsliding]( "Democratic backsliding in India"). _[The Economist Democracy Index]( "The Economist Democracy Index")_ classifies India as a [flawed democracy]( "Flawed democracy"). [Freedom House]( "Freedom House") classifies India as _partly free_.[[1]]( Early [Shakyas]( "Shakya"), [Koliyas]( "Koliya"), [Mallakas]( "Malla (tribe)"), and [Licchavis]( "Licchavi (tribe)") are recorded as having assemblies that were accessible to affluent men of certain social classes.[[4]]( Other [_saṅgha_ s]( "Sangha (Buddhism)") and [_gaṇa_ s]( "Gana") had councils of unelected nobles; these bodies did not conform to modern standards of democracy and functioned more similarly to elite [oligarchic]( "Oligarchy") councils. The Greek historian [Diodorus]( "Diodorus"), writing approximately two centuries after the time of [Alexander the Great]( "Alexander the Great"), refers to democratic states in India.[[5]]( However, there is a lack of evidence for electoral processes, and the term "democracy" in the 3rd century BCE may have referred more broadly to autonomous polities rather than representative governance.[[6]]( In the 10th century CE, inscriptions at the [Vaikunda Perumal Temple]( "Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur") suggest the election of local representatives to village councils during the [Chola Empire]( "Chola Empire").[[8]]( ### Independence from colonial rule [[edit]( "Edit section: Independence from colonial rule")] []( [B. R. Ambedkar]( "B. R. Ambedkar") presenting the final draft of the [Constitution of India]( "Constitution of India") to [Rajendra Prasad]( "Rajendra Prasad") in November 1949 Following nearly two centuries of British colonial rule, initially [under the East India Company]( "Company rule in India") and later [under direct governance by the British Crown]( "British Raj"), India gained [independence]( "Independence Day (India)") in 1947 after a sustained [nationalist anti-colonial movement]( "Indian independence movement").[[11]]( This movement was predominantly led by the [Indian National Congress]( "Indian National Congress") (INC; also known simply as the "Congress") and prominent figures such as [Mahatma Gandhi]( "Mahatma Gandhi") and [Jawaharlal Nehru]( "Jawaharlal Nehru").[[12]]( However, the movement was also shaped by a diverse range of ideological influences, including [communism]( "Communist involvement in the Indian independence movement") and _[Dalit]( "Dalit")_ leaders.[[13]]( Prominent figures associated with these currents included [B. R. Ambedkar]( "B. R. Ambedkar"), a leading advocate for the abolition of the [caste system]( "Caste system in India"), and [Subhas Chandra Bose]( "Subhas Chandra Bose"), a [militant]( "Militant")[nationalist]( "Ultranationalism") leader, allied with the [Axis Powers]( "Axis powers") in [World War II]( "World War II"). The independence process was marred by a surge of religious and communal divisions, culminating in a [bloody partition of the Indian subcontinent]( "Partition of India") in 1947. This division created two separate nations: [Pakistan]( "Pakistan") with a Muslim majority, and India with a Hindu majority. The partition was characterised by widespread violence, mass displacement, and [one of the largest refugee crises in history]( "List of largest refugee crises").[[15]]( India formally became a sovereign, democratic republic in 1950 with the adoption of the [world's longest written constitution]( "Constitution of India"). The constitution was drafted by a [Constituent Assembly]( "Constituent Assembly of India"), chaired by Ambedkar.[[17]]( The country held [its first general election]( "1951–52 Indian general election") between late 1951 and early 1952, implementing [universal adult suffrage]( "Universal suffrage"), and drawing heavy inspiration from the [Westminster parliamentary system]( "Westminster system").[[18]]( The Congress secured a decisive electoral victory and Nehru was elected as [the first]( "List of prime ministers of India")[prime minister of the country]( "Prime Minister of India").[[20]]( This established India as the world's largest liberal democracy.[[21]]( After independence, the Congress emerged as India's dominant political party. The [reorganization of Indian states in 1956]( "States Reorganisation Act, 1956") along linguistic lines—transforming the [colonial-era presidencies and provinces]( "Presidencies and provinces of British India") and fully integrating over 500 [princely states]( "Princely state")—both responded to and further fueled the rise of notable regional movements.[[22]]( Congress secured a decisive victory in the [1957 general election]( "1957 Indian general election").[[23]]( Notably, 1957 also witnessed a landmark development in the state of [Kerala]( "Kerala"), where the [Communist Party of India]( "Communist Party of India") (CPI), under the leadership of [E. M. S. Namboodiripad]( "E. M. S. Namboodiripad"), formed the government—marking one of the first democratically elected communist governments in the world.[[24]]( The Congress maintained its political dominance by winning the [1962 general election]( "1962 Indian general election") in another landslide. Nehru remains the longest-serving holder of the office of the prime minister, having led the country for sixteen years.[[25]]( Nehru's premiership embraced [republicanism]( "Republicanism"),[[26]]( "Secularism in India"),[[27]]( democracy]( "Socialism in India"),[[28]]( and a policy of [non-alignment]( "India and the Non-Aligned Movement") during the [Cold War]( "Cold War").[[29]]( The [caste system]( "Caste system in India") persisted, despite the constitutional abolition of caste-based discrimination.[[30]]( At the same time, the Congress developed into an increasingly [clientelist]( "Clientelism") organisation.[[31]]( Socialist government regulations expanded significantly in what became known as the [Licence Raj]( "Licence Raj"). However, these regulations often favoured established industrialists and large corporations, while disadvantaging small businesses,[[32]]( thereby contributing to the consolidation of capitalism.[[28]]( Nehru's leadership is considered to have failed in satisfying the [urban and rural poor]( "Poverty in India"), the [unemployed]( "Unemployment in India"), and the [Hindu nationalists and fundamentalists]( "Hindutva").[[33]]( Nehru [died in 1964]( "Death and state funeral of Jawaharlal Nehru") and was succeeded as prime minister by [Lal Bahadur Shastri]( "Lal Bahadur Shastri").[[34]]( Shastri's untimely death just two years later, in 1966, led to his succession by Nehru's daughter, [Indira Gandhi]( "Indira Gandhi"), India's first and only female prime minister.[[36]]( Nehru is often regarded as the architect of modern India.[[37]]( ### Indira Gandhi and the Emergency [[edit]( "Edit section: Indira Gandhi and the Emergency")] []( [Indira Gandhi]( "Indira Gandhi") in 1966 In response to a decline in support for Congress in the [1967 general election]( "1967 Indian general election"), Indira Gandhi embraced an increasingly [populist]( "Populism") platform.[[38]]( This led to opposition from the party's [right-wing]( "Right-wing politics"), ultimately causing Congress to split in 1969 into the conservative and anti-socialist [Congress (O)]( "Indian National Congress (Organisation)"),[[39]]( and the Gandhi-led socialist [Congress (R)]( "Indian National Congress (R)").[[35]]( Gandhi's Congress (R) won a landslide victory in the [1971 general election]( "1971 Indian general election").[[40]]( She is credited to have [centralised power]( "Democratic backsliding"), and her political base has been described as to be a [cult of personality]( "Cult of personality").[[41]]( Though many praised her for her [state socialism]( "State socialism") and [protectionism]( "Protectionism"),[[42]]( others criticised her alleged [Machiavellianism]( "Niccolo Machiavelli") and perceived insincerity regarding her socialist stance.[[a]]( Meanwhile, in 1967, an armed peasant revolt erupted in the village of [Naxalbari]( "Naxalbari") in the state of [West Bengal]( "West Bengal"), led by tribals and radical [Maoist-inspired communists]( "Maoism"). This event, known as the [Naxalbari uprising]( "Naxalbari uprising"), marked the inception of the [Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]( "Naxalite–Maoist insurgency"), a [people's war]( "People's war") that has persisted for decades.[[44]]( Rising economic turmoil led to an increase in [civil unrest]( "Civil disorder").[[46]]( Gandhi's increasing control over the judiciary, alongside undermining and bypassing of court rulings, sparked multiple constitutional crises.[[48]]( In 1974, a wave of student-led protests in the state of [Bihar]( "Bihar"), initially sparked by inflation, unemployment, and corruption, rapidly escalated into a broader movement of mass resistance, demanding systemic transformation and directly challenging Gandhi's authority. Known as the [Bihar Movement]( "Bihar Movement"), it was led by socialist leader [Jayaprakash Narayan]( "Jayaprakash Narayan"), who called for a "total revolution".[[49]]( On 12 June 1975, the [Allahabad High Court]( "Allahabad High Court") found Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractice in the [Raj Narain verdict]( "State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain").[[51]]( In the face of massive political opposition, disorder, and dissent across the country, Gandhi enacted a state of emergency.[[41]]( Emergency]( "The Emergency (India)") began on 25 June 1975 and saw unprecedented nationwide censorship, mass arrests of dissenters and political opponents, widespread forced sterilisation, the suspension of the constitution, the nullification of [fundamental rights]( "Fundamental rights in India"), and a dictatorial centralisation of power.[[41]]( In 1977, [Gandhi called for fresh elections]( "1977 Indian general election"), which resulted in a historic landslide victory for the [Janata Party]( "Janata Party"), a broad anti-Congress coalition. Janata Party leader [Morarji Desai]( "Morarji Desai") subsequently became the country's first non-Congress prime minister.[[53]]( The [Desai Premiership]( "Premiership of Morarji Desai") ended the state of emergency and amended the constitution to make it more difficult for the government to declare emergencies.[[54]]( Desai's economic policies were met with little success.[[56]]( Significant ideological and political divisions eroded the Janata government. In 1979, Desai resigned and [Charan Singh]( "Charan Singh") was appointed prime minister. Singh himself resigned just months later. In the [1980 election]( "1980 Indian general election"), Congress resurged, facilitating Indira Gandhi's return to power.[[57]]( Gandhi was [assassination in 1984]( "Assassination of Indira Gandhi") by her [Sikh]( "Sikhs") bodyguards in the aftermath of [Operation Blue Star]( "Operation Blue Star"), a deeply controversial military action in the [Golden Temple]( "Golden Temple"), a sacred site in [Sikhism]( "Sikhism"), in an attempt to crack down on [Sikh separatists]( "Khalistan movement").[[58]]( Her followers reacted by conducting a [series of nationwide anti-Sikh pogroms]( "1984 anti-Sikh riots"), leading to the deaths of thousands.[[59]]( Indira Gandhi's son, [Rajiv Gandhi]( "Rajiv Gandhi"), succeeded her as prime minister, with the [Nehru–Gandhi family]( "Nehru–Gandhi family") evolving into a political dynasty.[[61]]( The Congress government faced criticism for its handling of the anti-Sikh violence. Many accused the party of complicity, failing to bring the majority of perpetrators to justice, and allegedly providing state support or engaging in cover-ups.[[b]]( The events of 1984 contributed to the intensification of the [Punjab insurgency]( "Insurgency in Punjab, India"), a Sikh separatist movement that escalated into a decade-long armed conflict in [Punjab]( "Punjab, India"), the state with the largest Sikh population.[[62]]( ### Rise of coalition politics, Hindutva, and economic liberalisation [[edit]( "Edit section: Rise of coalition politics, Hindutva, and economic liberalisation")] Rajiv Gandhi won a landslide victory in the [1984 election]( "1984 Indian general election"). At the age of 40, he became India's youngest prime minister. His tenure saw a shift towards economic deregulation.[[63]]( The Congress was defeated in [1989]( "1989 Indian general election"), and [V. P. Singh]( "V. P. Singh") of the [Janata Dal]( "Janata Dal") coalition assumed office. His implementation of the [Mandal Commission report]( "Mandal Commission"), expanding [reservations]( "Reservation in India") for lower caste Hindus, sparked [significant social and political unrest]( "Mandal Commission protests of 1990").[[64]]( The 1990s also marked the ascent of [Hindutva]( "Hindutva") in Indian politics, with the [demolition of the Babri Masjid]( "Demolition of the Babri Masjid").[[65]]( Following Singh's ousting through a [motion of no confidence]( "Motion of no confidence in India"), [Chandra Shekhar]( "Chandra Shekhar") briefly served as prime minister before resigning in 1991. With the [1991 election]( "1991 Indian general election"), the Congress returned to power under [P. V. Narasimha Rao]( "P. V. Narasimha Rao"), whose government initiated [sweeping economic liberalisation]( "Economic liberalisation in India") amidst a [severe balance of payments crisis]( "1991 Indian economic crisis").[[66]]( The Congress lost the [1996 election]( "1996 Indian general election"). [Atal Bihari Vajpayee]( "Atal Bihari Vajpayee") of the [Bharatiya Janata Party]( "Bharatiya Janata Party") (BJP), closely affiliated with the [right-wing]( "Right-wing politics")[Hindutva]( "Hindutva")[paramilitary]( "Paramilitary") organisation [Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]( "Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh") (RSS), briefly became prime minister but his government fell within days.[[68]]( Two successive [United Front]( "United Front (India, 1996)") coalition governments under [H. D. Deve Gowda]( "H. D. Deve Gowda") and [Inder Kumar Gujral]( "Inder Kumar Gujral") followed, both short-lived due to political instability.[[68]]( Vajpayee returned to power in 1998, and after another brief collapse, led the BJP-organised [National Democratic Alliance]( "National Democratic Alliance") (NDA) coalition to victory in the [1999 election]( "1999 Indian general election").[[69]]( He became the first non-Congress prime minister to complete a full term.[[70]]( His government conducted [successful nuclear weapons tests in 1998]( "Pokhran-II"), continued economic liberalisation, and improved [diplomatic relations with the United States]( "India–United States relations").[[71]]( Dependent on coalition support and led by the moderate Vajpayee,[[72]]( the BJP was unable to advance key ideological goals, which sowed dissent among hardliners within the party.[[73]]( In 2002, a series of widespread [anti-Muslim pogroms across Gujarat]( "2002 Gujarat riots"), led to the deaths of over a thousand people.[[74]]( The state government, led by [chief minister]( "List of chief ministers of Gujarat")[Narendra Modi]( "Narendra Modi"), is considered complicit in the riots, and he has faced serious accusations of state-sponsored terrorism.[[c]]( ### UPA coalition governance [[edit]( "Edit section: UPA coalition governance")] The [2004 general election]( "2004 Indian general election") resulted in the Congress returning to power, leading the [United Progressive Alliance]( "United Progressive Alliance") (UPA), a coalition of [centrist]( "Centrism") and [centre-left]( "Centre-left politics") parties.[[75]]( Following the election, [Manmohan Singh]( "Manmohan Singh") assumed office as the first [Sikh]( "Sikhs") and non-Hindu prime minister. Singh continued the process of economic liberalisation and is widely credited with contributing to a period of sustained economic growth in India.[[76]]( His administration's handling of the [Great Recession]( "Great Recession") enabled the country to navigate the economic downturn more effectively than many other nations.[[77]]( He sought reconciliation with Pakistan and deepened ties with the United States.[[78]]( Singh secured a second term following the UPA's victory in the [2009 general election]( "2009 Indian general election").[[79]]( His government became increasingly associated with corruption, as it was implicated in several high-profile scandals.[[80]]( The constraints of coalition politics contributed to what was widely perceived by the public as policy paralysis, although some contended that this perception was exaggerated or manufactured.[[83]]( Despite robust economic growth, increases in [economic inequality]( "Income inequality in India") and [unemployment]( "Unemployment in India") also took place.[[85]]( His later administration witnessed public disillusionment and a decline in popular support.[[87]]( Meanwhile, [Hindutva]( "Hindutva") continued rising in the country, with many attributing the perceived failures of Singh's administration as a significant contributing factor.[[89]]( The clearance of Narendra Modi for the 2002 Gujarat riots, by a special panel of [India's Supreme Court]( "Supreme Court of India") in 2012, led to anger and disbelief among the country's [Muslim communities]( "Islam in India").[[90]]( In the [2014 general election]( "2014 Indian general election"), the BJP, led by Modi, adopted a [right-wing populist]( "Right-wing populism") platform.[[91]]( The party achieved a historic landslide victory, marking the first occasion since 1984 that a single party secured an outright majority in the parliament. The election was seen as the end of the dominance of the Congress in India's political landscape.[[92]]( Upon his inauguration, Narendra Modi became the first prime minister of India to be born after the country's independence. His first term primarily focused on reducing [bureaucratic red tape]( "Red tape"),[[94]]( implementing extensive economic liberalisation,[[95]]( and overhauling the economic system.[[95]]( These initiatives were accompanied by an expansion of certain government handouts,[[96]]( even as welfare programmes and government spending were scaled back.[[97]]( These policies continued into his successive terms. In the [2019 general election]( "2019 Indian general election"), he secured another landslide victory. Modi's second term witnessed a pronounced ideological shift towards [Hindutva]( "Hindutva").[[98]]( He has been widely credited with engineering a shift in India to [right-wing politics]( "Right-wing politics"), contributing to the state-backed mainstreaming of Hindutva, previously considered to be on the political fringe.[[d]]( High levels of economic growth and development[[100]]( have coincided with an intensification of economic inequality, reaching levels surpassing those observed during the colonial era. This has been described by many scholars, academics, and experts as "Billionaire Raj" or India's [Gilded Age]( "Gilded Age"), and is generally considered to be a crystallisation of trends that had emerged in the 1990s. The administration has faced criticism for allegedly fostering [crony capitalism]( "Crony capitalism").[[e]]( Modi's government was criticised for mishandling the [COVID-19 pandemic]( "COVID-19 pandemic in India").[[101]]( Furthermore, the pandemic contributed to a broader [cost-of-living crisis]( "Cost-of-living crisis") that persisted beyond its conclusion.[[103]]( Throughout his tenure, many observers have noted a significant and sustained [decline in democratic norms]( "Democratic backsliding") in India. The Modi government has employed state power to suppress dissent across various sectors, including the arts, academia,[[105]]( journalism, and the political opposition, while also leading to an [increasingly right-wing and pro-government mainstream media]( "Godi media").[[f]]( His political base has been compared to a [cult of personality]( "Cult of personality").[[106]]( In the [2024 general election]( "2024 Indian general election"), the BJP lost its parliamentary majority and now leads an NDA coalition government. The result coincided with a global [anti-incumbency]( "Anti-incumbency") wave and a resurgence of the opposition, led by the Congress party—though gains were largely driven by regional parties rather than a full revival of the Congress.[[108]]( The constitution of India is the supreme legal document of the country and the longest written national constitution in the world. It declares India to be a [sovereign]( "Sovereign state"), [socialist]( "Socialism in India"), [secular]( "Secularism in India"), and [democratic]( "Democracy")[republic]( "Republic").[[110]]( It establishes the framework that defines the fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions. It also sets out [fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens]( "Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India").[[111]]( The day of adoption of the constitution is celebrated every year on 26 January as [Republic Day]( "Republic Day (India)").[[112]]( #### Central/Union legislature [[edit]( "Edit section: Central/Union legislature")] The parliament of India is the country's supreme legislative body and follows a [bicameral structure]( "Bicameralism") comprising the [Rajya Sabha]( "Rajya Sabha") (Council of States) and the [Lok Sabha]( "Lok Sabha") (House of the People).[[114]]( The [president of India]( "President of India"), who serves as the ceremonial [head of state]( "Head of state"), is also a formal component of the legislature.[[115]]( The president is elected to a five-year term by an [electoral college]( "Electoral College (India)") comprising the elected members of both houses of parliament, as well as elected members of state legislatures.[[114]]( House]( "Parliament House, New Delhi") in [New Delhi]( "New Delhi") is the seat of India's parliament, housing both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. The Lok Sabha, also known as the House of the People, is the [lower house]( "Lower house") of the parliament. Its members are directly elected by Indian citizens through [universal adult franchise]( "Universal suffrage"), representing [parliamentary constituencies]( "List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha") across the country under a [first-past-the-post]( "First-past-the-post voting") electoral system.[[116]]( elections]( "Elections in India") are held once every five years, although early elections may be called if the house is dissolved by the president on the advice of the [prime minister]( "Prime Minister of India") and the [council of ministers]( "Union Council of Ministers"). During a [state of emergency]( "States of emergency in India"), the term of the Lok Sabha may be extended beyond five years.[[111]]( The Lok Sabha is the principal centre of legislative authority in India, where major national laws are introduced, debated, and passed; the executive branch is primarily responsible and accountable to this house. The prime minister typically serves as the [leader of the house in Lok Sabha]( "Leader of the House in Lok Sabha"), and the ruling party or coalition largely drives the legislative agenda.[[114]]( A [motion of no confidence]( "Motion of no confidence in India") is a formal proposal in the Lok Sabha asserting that the ruling government no longer has the support of the majority of the house; if passed, it obliges the entire government to resign.[[114]]( The current Lok Sabha, the [eighteenth since independence]( "18th Lok Sabha"), comprises 543 seats, all filled by [members of parliament]( "Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha") elected in the [2024 Indian general election]( "2024 Indian general election").[[117]]( The Rajya Sabha, also known as the Council of States, is the [upper house]( "Upper house") of the parliament.[[118]]( It currently has 245 seats. [Its members]( "Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha") are elected by the members of the state legislative assemblies through a system of [proportional representation]( "Proportional representation"), by means of a [single transferable vote]( "Single transferable vote"). Members serve [staggered six-year terms]( "Staggered elections"), with one-third of the house being elected every two years. In addition, twelve members are nominated directly by the president, in recognition of their distinguished contributions to fields such as [the arts]( "The arts") and [the sciences]( "Science").[[114]]( While the Rajya Sabha has the constitutional authority to introduce, debate, and pass most categories of national legislation—with the sole exception of [money bills]( "Money bill"), which fall exclusively within the domain of the Lok Sabha[[111]]( primarily functions as a revisory chamber and rarely obstructs significant legislation approved by the lower house. Nevertheless, on occasion, it has exercised its powers to delay or seek amendments to major legislative proposals passed by the Lok Sabha.[[114]]( The state legislature of India consists of the state legislative assemblies and the state legislative councils. While the majority of [Indian states and union territories]( "States and union territories of India") function under a [unicameral legislature]( "Unicameralism"), six states maintain a bicameral system, with the state legislative councils serving as the upper house.[[119]]( Notably, money bills fall exclusively within the jurisdiction of the state legislative assemblies. In the event of a disagreement between the two houses of the state legislature, the decision of the state legislative assembly prevails.[[111]]( ##### State legislative assembly [[edit]( "Edit section: State legislative assembly")] The state legislative assembly, also known as the Vidhan Sabha or the Saasana Sabha, is the legislative body that functions as the unicameral legislature in twenty-two states and all union territories of India. In six states, it serves as the lower house of a bicameral legislature.[[121]]( of the legislative assemby]( "Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)") are directly elected by the electorate of individual constituencies through general elections held every five years, unless dissolved sooner by the [governor]( "Governor (India)") on the advice of the [chief minister]( "Chief minister (India)").[[122]]( State legislative assemblies are the locus of legislative authority in their specific states or union territories. Analogous to the Lok Sabha at the national level, a motion of no confidence may be introduced and passed within a state legislative assembly; if successful, the incumbent state government is obliged to resign.[[111]]( ##### State legislative council [[edit]( "Edit section: State legislative council")] The state legislative council, also known as the Vidhan Parishad or the Saasana Mandali, functions as the upper house in the bicameral legislature of select Indian states.[[123]]( A state legislative assembly may pass a resolution by a special majority to establish or dissolve the council.[[124]]( Members of a state legislative council serve staggered terms of six years, with one-third of the members retiring every two years. The composition of the council reflects a blend of indirect election and nomination, designed to represent various interest groups and areas of expertise. Although the state legislative council performs a reviewing and advisory role, it holds limited legislative power. As of now, six Indian states possess such councils: [Andhra Pradesh]( "Andhra Pradesh"), [Bihar]( "Bihar"), [Karnataka]( "Karnataka"), [Maharashtra]( "Maharashtra"), [Telangana]( "Telangana"), and [Uttar Pradesh]( "Uttar Pradesh").[[121]]( ### Election commission [[edit]( "Edit section: Election commission")] Reservation is a form of [affirmative action]( "Affirmative action") that was established during the [British Raj]( "British Raj").[[125]]( It reserves seats for "socially and economically backward" [castes]( "Caste system in India") and communities, in higher education admissions, public sector employment, and political bodies, for adequate representation.[[126]]( ## Democratic backsliding [[edit]( "Edit section: Democratic backsliding")] ### Under Indira Gandhi [[edit]( "Edit section: Under Indira Gandhi")] ### Under Narendra Modi [[edit]( "Edit section: Under Narendra Modi")] Numerous media outlets[[128]]( and academic scholars[[131]]( have extensively documented the [democratic backsliding]( "Democratic backsliding") seen in India under the premiership of [Narendra Modi]( "Narendra Modi"). Laws on sedition, defamation, and counterterrorism, as well as harassment and raids by tax officers, have been used to silence critics and dissenting voices.[[133]]( Organisations such as the [Enforcement Directorate]( "Enforcement Directorate") and the [Central Bureau of Investigation]( "Central Bureau of Investigation") have been used to attack the opposition.[[106]]( The Modi administration has delayed, suppressed, and withheld official government data, such as those related to [unemployment]( "Unemployment in India"), mob lynchings, and [farmer suicides]( "Farmers' suicides in India"), among others.[[138]]( India's "referee institutions", such as the judiciary, investigative agencies, the [Election Commission of India]( "Election Commission of India") (ECI), the [Central Information Commission]( "Central Information Commission") (CIC), [Lokpal]( "Lokpal"), among others have been significantly weakened due to coercion and deference, patronage and interference, as well as neglect and institutional deprivation. Ideological alignment with the BJP, career incentives, and public opinion pressures, have caused and worsened institutional weakening.[[139]]( This has coincided with the erosion of public trust in institutions and democratic foundations like the [rule of law]( "Rule of law").[[140]]( The [2025 Indian electoral controversy]( "2025 Indian electoral controversy") and [2026 Indian electoral controversy]( "2026 Indian electoral controversy") emerged due to alleged [electoral fraud]( "Electoral fraud") and the collusion of the ECI with the ruling BJP. [Internet censorship has worsened]( "Internet censorship in India"), with a significant rise in the banning and blocking of websites, apps, and accounts on social media, alongside the suppression of online information, which are considered to be critical of the government.[[141]]( Furthermore, throughout Modi's tenure as prime minister, the Indian media landscape has shifted markedly towards a right-wing and pro-government orientation. This alignment has sometimes been [pejoratively referred]( "Pejorative") to as '[Godi media]( "Godi media")', a term used to criticise perceived media subservience to the ruling establishment.[[144]]( In 2021, the [V-Dem Institute]( "V-Dem Institute") downgraded India from 'flawed democracy' to 'electoral autocracy'.[[146]]( In a 2023 report, the institute characterised India as "one of the worst autocratisers in the last 10 years."[[147]]( In 2024, India was ranked as the 19th most electorally [democratic country in Asia]( "Democracy in Asia"), amid a process of democratic backsliding, according to the [V-Dem Democracy indices]( "V-Dem Democracy Indices").[[148]]( In 2023, India was ranked 161 out of 180 countries in the [World Press Freedom Index]( "World Press Freedom Index"), published by [Reporters Without Borders]( "Reporters Without Borders").[[149]]( The [Democracy Index]( "The Economist Democracy Index"), published by [the Economist Group]( "The Economist Group"), classifies India as a 'flawed democracy'.[[150]]( The [Freedom House]( "Freedom House") classifies India as 'partly free'.[[128]]( * [Elections in India]( "Elections in India") * [Politics of India]( "Politics of India") * [Democratic backsliding]( "Democratic backsliding") 1. [↑]( * Rosser, John (2004). _Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy_. [MIT Press]( "MIT Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780262182348]( "Special:BookSources/9780262182348"). * Malik, Yogendra (1988). _India: The Years of Indira Gandhi_. [Brill Publishers]( "Brill Publishers"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[978-90-04-08681-4]( "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08681-4"). * Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). _India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India_. [C. Hurst & Co.]( "C. Hurst & Co.")[ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781850653981]( "Special:BookSources/9781850653981"). * _The Indian Libertarian_. [University of Virginia]( "University of Virginia"). 1965. 2. [↑]( * Jeffery, Renée (2020). "Post-Conflict Justice in Divided Democracies: The 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots in India". _[Third World Quarterly]( "Third World Quarterly")_. **41** (6): 994–1011. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1080/01436597.2020.1728686]( [hdl]( "Hdl (identifier)"):[10072/392194]( * ["India: No Justice for 1984 Anti-Sikh Bloodshed"]( _[Human Rights Watch]( "Human Rights Watch")_. 29 October 2014. Archived from [the original]( on 29 October 2014. * Bal, Hartosh Singh (1 October 2014). ["Sins of Commission: How nine official inquiries obscured the truth of the 1984 anti-Sikh violence"]( _[The Caravan]( "The Caravan")_. Archived from [the original]( on 4 October 2014. * Agal, Renu (11 August 2005). ["Justice delayed, justice denied"]( _[BBC]( "BBC")_. Archived from [the original]( on 17 November 2005. 3. [↑]( * Ghassem-Fachandi, Parvis (2012). _Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India_. [Princeton University Press]( "Princeton University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780691151779]( "Special:BookSources/9780691151779"). * Jackson, Richard; Murphy, Eamon; Poynting, Scott (2009). _Contemporary State Terrorism: Theory and Practice_. [Routledge]( "Routledge"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781135245160]( "Special:BookSources/9781135245160"). * Pandey, Gyanendra (2006). _Routine Violence: Nations, Fragments, Histories_. [Stanford University Press]( "Stanford University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780804752640]( "Special:BookSources/9780804752640"). * Strozier, Charles B.; Terman, David M.; Jones, James W.; Boyd, Katherine A. (2010). _The Fundamentalist Mindset: Psychological Perspectives on Religion, Violence, and History_. [Oxford University Press]( "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780199702022]( "Special:BookSources/9780199702022"). 4. [↑]( * Hansen, Thomas Blom; Roy, Srirupa (2022). _Saffron Republic: Hindu Nationalism and State Power in India_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781009100489]( "Special:BookSources/9781009100489"). * Komireddi, K. S. (2024). _[Malevolent Republic: A Short History of the New India]( "Malevolent Republic")_. [C. Hurst & Co.]( "C. Hurst & Co.")[ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781805261780]( "Special:BookSources/9781805261780"). * Varshney, Ashutosh; Staggs, Connor (2024). "Hindu Nationalism and the New Jim Crow". _[Journal of Democracy]( "Journal of Democracy")_. **35**. [Johns Hopkins University Press]( "Johns Hopkins University Press"): 5–18. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1353/jod.2024.a915345]( * Pathi, Krutika; Saaliq, Sheikh (19 April 2024). ["Once a fringe Indian ideology, Hindu nationalism is now mainstream, thanks to Modi's decade in power"]( _[Associated Press]( "Associated Press")_. Archived from [the original]( on 18 April 2024. * Singh, Amit (7 August 2023). ["Has the Hindu majority developed a 'Nazi conscience' in India?"]( _[European Consortium for Political Research]( "European Consortium for Political Research")_. Archived from [the original]( on 27 September 2023. * George, Cherian (28 February 2022). ["The Rise of Hindu Nationalism"]( _[Hindutva Watch]( "Hindutva Watch")_. Archived from [the original]( on 1 March 2022. 5. [↑]( * [Crabtree, James]( "James Crabtree") (2018). _[The Billionaire Raj: A Journey Through India's New Gilded Age]( "The Billionaire Raj")_. [Oneworld Publications]( "Oneworld Publications"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781786073808]( "Special:BookSources/9781786073808"). * Tillin, Louise (7 May 2024). ["The political economy of populism in India"]( _[King's College London]( "King's College London")_. Archived from [the original]( on 17 June 2024. * Bharti, Nitin Kumar; Chancel, Lucas; Piketty, Thomas; Somanchi, Anmol (18 March 2024). ["Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj"]( _[World Inequality Database]( "World Inequality Database")_. Archived from [the original]( on 14 June 2024. * Kamble, Kapil S (20 May 2023). ["The Anatomy of Crony Capitalism in India"]( _[Economic and Political Weekly]( "Economic and Political Weekly")_. Archived from [the original]( on 23 May 2023. * Sharma, Yashraj (29 April 2024). ["Is today's India more unequal than under British rule?"]( _[Al Jazeera Media Network]( "Al Jazeera Media Network")_. Archived from [the original]( on 29 April 2024. 6. [↑]( * Agarwala, Rina (2025). ["The Perils and Promises of Unequal Democracy: Insights from the Sociology of India"]( _[Annual Review of Sociology]( "Annual Review of Sociology")_. **51**: 485–505. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1146/annurev-soc-090324-022910]( * Widmalm, Sten (2021). _Routledge Handbook of Autocratization in South Asia_. [Routledge]( "Routledge"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781000486629]( "Special:BookSources/9781000486629"). * Brunkert, Lennart; Kruse, Stefan; Welzel, Christian (3 April 2019). ["A tale of culture-bound regime evolution: the centennial democratic trend and its recent reversal"]( _Democratization_. **26** (3): 422–443. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1080/13510347.2018.1542430]( [ISSN]( "ISSN (identifier)")[1351-0347]( [S2CID]( "S2CID (identifier)")[148625260]( [Archived]( from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2021. * Khaitan, Tarunabh (26 May 2020). ["Killing a Constitution with a Thousand Cuts: Executive Aggrandizement and Party-state Fusion in India"]( _Law & Ethics of Human Rights_. **14** (1): 49–95. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1515/lehr-2020-2009]( [hdl]( "Hdl (identifier)"):[11343/241852]( [ISSN]( "ISSN (identifier)")[2194-6531]( [S2CID]( "S2CID (identifier)")[221083830]( * Blank, Jonah (8 August 2019). ["India Just Put Democracy at Risk Across South Asia"]( _[The Atlantic]( "The Atlantic")_. Archived from [the original]( on 8 August 2019. * Biswas, Soutik (16 March 2021). ["'Electoral autocracy': The downgrading of India's democracy"]( _[BBC]( "BBC")_. Archived from [the original]( on 20 April 2021. * Ganguly, Sumit (18 September 2020). ["India's Democracy Is Under Threat"]( _[Foreign Policy]( "Foreign Policy")_. Archived from [the original]( on 20 September 2020. * Ara, Ismat (9 December 2020). ["At Farmers' Protest, Field Reporters of 'Godi Media' Channels Face the Heat"]( _[The Wire (India)]( "The Wire (India)")_. Archived from [the original]( on 27 November 2022. 1. [↑]( Country Profile"]( _Freedom House_. Retrieved 4 October 2026. 2. [↑]( India's Democracy Is Dying"]( _Journal of Democracy_. Retrieved 4 October 2026. 3. [↑]( autocracy': The downgrading of India's democracy"]( _www.bbc.com_. 16 March 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2026. 4. [↑]( 1997, p. 23[_[full citation needed]( "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_] 5. [↑]( 2.39[_[full citation needed]( "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_] 6. [↑]( 1973, pp. 45–46[_[full citation needed]( "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_] 7. [↑]( Sainte, 2006, pp. 321–3 8. [↑]( Nagaswamy (2003). _Uttaramerur_. Chennai: Tamil Arts Academy. pp.12–16. 9. [↑]( T. (7 March 2024). _Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu_. Abhinav Publications. p.88. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788170173984]( "Special:BookSources/9788170173984"). 10. [↑]( perumal temple inscriptions, Uttiramerur, TN and democratic election practices 1000 years ago"]( _Navrang India_. 2 September 2022. 11. [↑]( Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas (2006). _A Concise History of Modern India_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781139458870]( "Special:BookSources/9781139458870"). 12. [↑]( P. J. (2001). _The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[978-0-521-00254-7]( "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00254-7"). 13. [↑]( Ali (2020). _Revolutionary Pasts: Communist Internationalism in Colonial India_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781108481847]( "Special:BookSources/9781108481847"). 14. [↑]( Gail (1994). _Dalits and the Democratic Revolution: Dr Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India_. [Sage Publishing]( "Sage Publishing"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780803991392]( "Special:BookSources/9780803991392"). 15. [↑]( Gyanendra (2006). _The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India_. [Oxford University Press]( "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780199081097]( "Special:BookSources/9780199081097"). 16. [↑]( Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali (2010). _The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories_. [Columbia University Press]( "Columbia University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780231138475]( "Special:BookSources/9780231138475"). 17. [↑]( A. Dirk; Duranti, Marco; Burke, Roland (2020). _Decolonization, Self-Determination, and the Rise of Global Human Rights Politics_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/9781108783170]( [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781108783170]( "Special:BookSources/9781108783170"). 18. [↑]( Ornit (2017). _How India Became Democratic: Citizenship and the Making of the Universal Franchise_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/9781107705722]( [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781107705722]( "Special:BookSources/9781107705722"). 19. [↑]( the Westminster parliamentary system was exported around the world"]( _[University of Cambridge]( "University of Cambridge")_. 2 December 2013. 20. [↑]( Shyamlal (12 April 2024). ["How India pulled off its first general election"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 12 April 2024. 21. [↑]( Ramachandra (2008). _[India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy]( "India After Gandhi")_ (Indian ed.). India: Picador. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780330505543]( "Special:BookSources/9780330505543"). 22. [↑]( Luke (2 November 2016). ["Explainer: The reorganization of states in India and why it happened"]( _[The News Minute]( "The News Minute")_. Archived from [the original]( on 5 March 2024. 23. [↑]( Shyamlal (17 April 2024). ["When Election Commission overcame 'impossible' challenge, held second Lok Sabha election on time"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 17 April 2024. 24. [↑]( that shaped India | 1957: The rise of Red Kerala"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. 24 May 2024. Archived from [the original]( on 1 April 2024. 25. [↑]( Shyamlal (20 April 2024). ["How Nehru won a third term, despite growing challenges"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 20 April 2024. 26. [↑]( Jayantha (1999). _Small Arms Control: Old Weapons, New Issues_. [Ashgate Publishing]( "Ashgate Publishing"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780754620761]( "Special:BookSources/9780754620761"). 27. [↑]( Atul (2014). _India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations_. [Princeton University Press]( "Princeton University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781400859511]( "Special:BookSources/9781400859511"). 28. [1]( Madhavan (12 February 2022). ["Nehru's socialism was evolutionary, inclusive, and not based on class"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. Archived from [the original]( on 12 February 2022. 29. [↑]( Verinder (1992). _International Relations and Foreign Policy of India: UNO, NAM, NIEO, SAARC, and India's foreign policy_. Deep & Deep Publications. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788171003501]( "Special:BookSources/9788171003501"). 30. [↑]( is India's caste system?"]( _[BBC]( "BBC")_. 19 June 2019. 31. [↑]( Christophe (26 August 2021). ["The three ages of India's democracy"]( _[Princeton University Press]( "Princeton University Press")_. 32. [↑]( B.V. (2020). "Impact of MRTP Act for Development of Nation- A Study". _International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews_. [SSRN]( "SSRN (identifier)")[3690822]( 33. [↑]( Bhiku (1991). "Nehru and the National Philosophy of India". _[Economic and Political Weekly]( "Economic and Political Weekly")_. **26** (1/2): 35–48. [JSTOR]( "JSTOR (identifier)")[4397189]( 34. [↑]( Victor (28 May 2013). ["From the archive, 28 May 1964: The death of Nehru"]( _[The Guardian]( "The Guardian")_. 35. [1]( Mahendra (1981). _Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969_. Abhinav Publications. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788170171409]( "Special:BookSources/9788170171409"). 36. [↑]( Claudia; Thompson, Mark (2013). _Dynasties and Female Political Leaders in Asia: Gender, Power and Pedigree_. LIT Verlag Münster. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9783643903204]( "Special:BookSources/9783643903204"). 37. [↑]( of modern India"]( _[Frontline]( "Frontline (magazine)")_. 8 November 2018. 38. [↑]( Suhit (2019). _The Paradox of Populism: The Indira Gandhi Years 1966-1977_. Primus Books. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9789352909643]( "Special:BookSources/9789352909643"). 39. [↑]( Sudeep (28 August 2020). ["Crisis and the Congress"]( _[Open (Indian magazine)]( "Open (Indian magazine)")_. 40. [↑]( Sushim (17 December 2024). ["When Indira Gandhi broke 'One Nation One Election' cycle"]( _[India Today]( "India Today")_. 41. [1]( Christophe; Anil, Pratinav (2021). _India's First Dictatorship_. [Oxford University Press]( "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780197583302]( "Special:BookSources/9780197583302"). 42. [↑]( Bipan; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mukherjee, Mridula (2008). _India Since Independence_. [Penguin Books]( "Penguin Books"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780143104094]( "Special:BookSources/9780143104094"). 43. [↑]( Jason (2011). _India and the World Bank: The Politics of Aid and Influence_. Anthem Press. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780857288325]( "Special:BookSources/9780857288325"). 44. [↑]( Adrija (25 May 2018). ["Naxalbari: How a peasant uprising triggered a pan-India political movement"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 25 May 2018. 45. [↑]( Siddharthya (21 September 2017). ["Half a Century of India's Maoist Insurgency"]( _[The Diplomat]( "The Diplomat (magazine)")_. 46. [↑]( Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy". _Centre for Monitoring the Indian Economy_. August 1993. 47. [↑]( Romila; Schwartzberg, Joseph. ["Indira Gandhi's Impact"]( _[Encyclopædia Britannica]( "Encyclopædia Britannica")_. 48. [↑]( Debasish; Keane, John (2021). _[To Kill a Democracy: India's Passage to Despotism]( "To Kill a Democracy")_. [Oxford University Press]( "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[978-9-390-74280-6]( "Special:BookSources/978-9-390-74280-6"). 49. [↑]( Lalan (1987). _Democracy and Dissent: A Case Study of the Bihar Movement, 1974-75_. Mittal Publications. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788170990086]( "Special:BookSources/9788170990086"). 50. [↑]( Krishna, Ananth (2011). _India Since Independence: Making Sense Of Indian Politics_. [Pearson Education]( "Pearson Education"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788131734650]( "Special:BookSources/9788131734650"). 51. [↑]( Gandhi found guilty of corruption"]( _[BBC]( "BBC")_. 12 June 1975. Archived from [the original]( on 23 June 2017. 52. [↑]( Yogendra (1988). _India: The Years of Indira Gandhi_. [Brill Publishers]( "Brill Publishers"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[978-90-04-08681-4]( "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08681-4"). 53. [↑]( Desai"]( _[Encyclopædia Britannica]( "Encyclopædia Britannica")_. 54. [↑]( Paul (1994). _The Politics of India Since Independence_. [Cambridge University Press]( "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[978-0-521-45970-9]( "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45970-9"). 55. [↑]( G.G. (2003). _320 Million Judges_. Abhinav Publications. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788170170617]( "Special:BookSources/9788170170617"). 56. [↑]( Shashi (2006). _India: From Midnight to the Millennium and Beyond_. [Arcade Publishing]( "Arcade Publishing"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781559708036]( "Special:BookSources/9781559708036"). 57. [↑]( Shyamlal (8 May 2024). ["1980 Lok Sabha elections: Triumph and tragedy of Indira Gandhi"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 8 May 2024. 58. [↑]( Sumit; Fidler, David P. (2009). _India and Counterinsurgency: Lessons Learned_. [Routledge]( "Routledge"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781134008087]( "Special:BookSources/9781134008087"). 59. [↑]( Jeffrey M.; Demy, Timothy J. (2017). _War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes]_. [ABC-Clio]( "ABC-Clio"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9781610695176]( "Special:BookSources/9781610695176"). 60. [↑]( Paul R. (1996). _Riots and Pogroms_. [New York University Press]( "New York University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780814712825]( "Special:BookSources/9780814712825"). 61. [↑]( making of the Gandhi dynasty"]( _[The Guardian]( "The Guardian")_. 9 May 2007. 62. [↑]( Ray, Jayanta (2007). _Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World_. [Pearson Education]( "Pearson Education"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788131708347]( "Special:BookSources/9788131708347"). 63. [↑]( Philippe; Burgess, Robin; Redding, Stephen J.; Zilibotti, Fabrizio (2008). "The Unequal Effects of Liberalization: Evidence from Dismantling the License Raj in India". _[American Economic Review]( "American Economic Review")_. **98** (4): 1397–1412. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1257/aer.98.4.1397]( 64. [↑]( N. S. (1998). _Current Trends in Indian Politics_. Deep and Deep Publications. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788171007981]( "Special:BookSources/9788171007981"). 65. [↑]( Christophe (2007). _Hindu Nationalism: A Reader_. [Princeton University Press]( "Princeton University Press"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780691130972]( "Special:BookSources/9780691130972"). 66. [↑]( Valerie; Saxena, Sweta Chaman (2002). ["What Caused the 1991 Currency Crisis in India?"]( _[International Monetary Fund]( "International Monetary Fund")_. 67. [↑]( Stuart; Harriss, John (2013). _Reinventing India: Liberalization, Hindu Nationalism and Popular Democracy_. [Wiley]( "Wiley (publisher)"). [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780745666044]( "Special:BookSources/9780745666044"). 68. [1]( Suchitra (7 April 2024). ["Elections that shaped India | The United Front experiment (1996-98)"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. Archived from [the original]( on 7 April 2024. 69. [↑]( 1999 Indian Parliamentary Elections and the New BJP-led Coalition Government"]( Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. 70. [↑]( is now the longest serving non-Congress PM as he edges past Atal Bihari Vajpayee"]( _[The New Indian Express]( "The New Indian Express")_. 14 August 2020. 71. [↑]( Sujata K. (2004). _Atal Bihari Vajpayee: Prime Minister of India_. Gyan Publishing House. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9788178352770]( "Special:BookSources/9788178352770"). 72. [↑]( Kingshuk (16 August 2018). ["Atal Behari Vajpayee: A mercurial moderate"]( _[BBC]( "BBC")_. 73. [↑]( Sharad; Sinha, Sanjiv (18 January 2000). ["Revive Jan Sangh — BJP hardlines"]( _[The Indian Express]( "The Indian Express")_. Archived from [the original]( on 8 May 2021. 74. [↑]( Thomas Albert; Gilinskiy, Yakov; Sergevnin, Vladimir (2009). _The Ethics of Terrorism: Innovative Approaches from an International Perspective (17 Lectures)_. Charles C Thomas Publisher. [ISBN]( "ISBN (identifier)")[9780691151779]( "Special:BookSources/9780691151779"). 75. [↑]( Sruthi (9 April 2024). ["Elections that shaped India | An 'upset' victory in 2004, and the rise of the UPA"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. Archived from [the original]( on 9 April 2024. 76. [↑]( India Report"]( Astaire Research. Archived from [the original]( on 14 January 2009. 77. [↑]( cuts India growth forecast, sees rate cuts"]( _[Reuters]( "Reuters")_. 17 November 2008. Archived from [the original]( on 16 December 2008. 78. [↑]( Luv (13 January 2025). ["Manmohan Singh: Legacy of a peacemaker"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. Archived from [the original]( on 13 January 2025. 79. [↑]( Amelia (16 May 2009). ["India's Congress party heads for surprise election victory"]( _[The Guardian]( "The Guardian")_. 80. [↑]( case: A chronology of events"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. 21 December 2017. Archived from [the original]( on 12 January 2025. 81. [↑]( Shoumojit (18 October 2019). ["Scams were exploding all around Manmohan Singh, says Piyush Goyal"]( _[The Hindu]( "The Hindu")_. Archived from [the original]( on 18 October 2019. 82. [↑]( Ravi (23 November 2010). ["India's famously clean leader muddied by scandals"]( _[NBC News]( "NBC News")_. 83. [↑]( Soni (27 December 2024). ["Manmohan Singh's final days in office: The shaping of a complex legacy"]( _[Frontline]( "Frontline (magazine)")_. 84. [↑]( Harish (27 December 2024). ["The Silent Strength of Manmohan Singh as Prime Minister Was His Moral Compass"]( _[The Wire]( "The Wire (India)")_. Archived from [the original]( on 13 April 2025. 85. [↑]( Ashoka (9 November 2024). ["The great inequality myth that rules India"]( _[Frontline]( "Frontline (magazine)")_. Archived from [the original]( on 11 November 2024. 86. [↑]( Shivakar; Kumar, Surinder (31 July 2019). "Neo-liberal Macroeconomic Policy and Structural Transformation of Indian Economy: Impact on Income, Employment and Distribution". _The Indian Journal of Labour Economics_. **62** (2): 219–238. [doi]( "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/s41027-019-00166-9]( 87. [↑]( Amy; Lamont, James (27 December 2024). ["Manmohan Singh, former Indian prime minister, 1932-2024"]( _[Financial Times]( "Financial Times")_. Archived from [the original]( on 28 December 2024. 88. [↑]( Stafford; Singh, Puneet (13 March 2015). ["India's New Leadership Faces High Expectations"]( _[Gallup, Inc.]( "Gallup, Inc.")_ 89. [↑]( Thomas (31 December 2024). ["Manmohan Singh: India's Last Liberal"]( _[Jacobin]( "Jacobin (magazine)")_. 90. 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